Nineteenth Century Adventurers and the beautiful and historic Bukhara
After leaving Gijduvan, I drove the remaining 50km to Bukhara. The countryside around Bukhara is rather like the farmland one passes through on entering and leaving Samarkand, hence I did not pay it much attention in terms of photographs/film.
Bukhara has managed to retain more of its original charm than Samarkand, which makes it quite beautiful in parts, and alongside Khiva I think it is one of the more charming Silk Road cities. Much of its history is still on display today, including many sites from the ancient/early Islamic periods, and from certain key events in the Great Game (which I have introduced in previous posts).
With that in mind, I’d like to start this blog post with a bit more about the history of Bukhara, the Great Game, and some of the epic European adventurers that first ventured into these faraway lands!
The History of Bukhara
The history of Bukhara is like that of Samarkand, being heavily influenced by Persian culture until the end of the Timurid dynasty. In 850 AD it became part of the Samanid Empire which existed from 819-899 AD and was the Samanid capital at one point.[1] It was then absorbed into the Karakhanid Dynasty in the 11th century and subsequently conquered by Genghis Khan in 1220 AD and the city itself was sacked. Surprisingly, the city began to flourish again within 20 years and was rebuilt becoming a centre for trade as one might expect given its location. Thereafter, its importance was diminished and by the 16th century and it eventually became host to more local governments, namely various local Islamic Emirs. Bukhara remained centrally involved in the slave trade well into the 19th century (hence Connolly’s visit). The Emirs of Bukhara were defeated by Russian force of arms after 1868; despite this, however, they remained at least nominally independent from Imperial Russia until its collapse in 1917. In 1920 the Emirate of Bukhara was conquered by the Red Army and absorbed into the USSR.
[1] Salama & El-Ashmouni 2021, p. 84.
Classic Great Game images, with two showing Russian forces defeating the Emir's. The photo in the middle is actually of the conquest of Samarkand:
Aerial view of Bokhara being Bombed by in 1920 by the Bolsheviks:
The Adventurers of the Great Game
As introduced in prior posts[2], many individuals (both westerners and locals) travelled extensively in Central Asian countries to explore, scout and map the blank regions on the map between the British and Russian Empires in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. Uzbekistan was no exception to this and hosted travellers (whether desired or not) from various nations. I want to talk about a few of these inspiring intrepid adventurers. Given my own interests and an abundance of literature (not to mention space/time limitations here) I am focusing only on a few of my favourite British explorers. The amusing quote below by Kipling rather sums up part of my view of these British explorers and never ceases bring a smile to my face.
“For Allah created the English mad – the maddest of all mankind.”
- Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936), in ‘Kitchener’s School’
The archetypical Great Game image, a Central Asian warlord flanked by the Russian Bear and British Lion:
Alexander “Bokhara” Burnes
Alexander Burnes was briefly introduced in a photograph in this[3] blog post, and now I can take a bit more time to introduce him more formally. Born a few months after Trafalgar in May 1805, Burnes was born in Scotland and eventually joined the East India Company. Burnes arrived in India around 1821 serving there for some time and progressing through the ranks, until he ultimately ended up in Kabul, Afghanistan. In 1831, the Raj / British Government were desperate to know what the Russian Empire was up to in the regions north of Afghanistan, particularly in what is now Uzbekistan. It is with this backdrop in mind that that the 26-year-old Burnes was dispatched to explore and map the overland route to Uzbekistan, specifically, to Bukhara. Burnes’ life was both fantastic, dramatic and tragic in many ways, from his adventure to Bukhara (which I will discuss here) to his unfortunate demise, murdered by a mob in Kabul in November 1841 during the 1st Anglo Afghan War. There are many books covering Burnes broader life in detail, including those by the eminent Peter Hopkirk and others. A great summary of his journey to Bukhara can be found in “Shooting Leave”[4] by John Ure which I will quote from/paraphrase herein (thank you William for this brilliant gift that I finished reading whilst in China!).
Alexander "Bokhara" Burnes in local costume:
They key accolade of Burnes’ storied career which I will discuss here is his overland journey from the Punjab and Afghanistan, through the Hindu Kush (as it was then called), across the bandit infested deserts of what is now Turkmenistan, and into Bukhara (NB: during Burnes’ time the spelling of “Bokhara” was utilised, I will change this to “Bukhara” throughout). In many ways, he followed in the footsteps of William Moorcroft (whose own journey a few years prior is well worth researching). It goes almost without saying that Burnes’ expedition was politically motivated, with Lord Bentinck (governor general of India) sanctioning it, but requiring that it be done strictly under Burnes own steam, i.e. as a nominally private individual, a substantially more dangerous (but less politically risky) endeavour. Burnes brought a fellow junior officer with him. The journey included, as one might expect, a fair bit of “Shooting Leave” (sport hunting effectively, including Tiger hunting with Ranjit Singh), and travelling in some style as Europeans did at the time. However, after leaving Lahore (now in Pakistan) Burnes and his few companions gave away their furniture and opted to travel in local dress, with each man having a single pony for his baggage and eating only local food. Of course, being in the century of what I view as a rather golden age of travel, Burnes still found the time to try and trace in the footsteps of Alexander the Great, study salt mining, and to collect ancient coins. The trip had innumerable tense moments, crossing the mighty Indus River, losing their Sikh Guards at the Afghan border, the Khyber Pass, gossiping with the locals, being hand-fed by Dost Mohammed, crossing the Kabul River on inflated animal skin rafts, and ultimately passing into dangerously uncertain Uzbek territory.
Arriving in Uzbekistan had its own special risks, the Uzbeks were ferociously religious, the country showed evidence of Russian intrigue being present, the landscape remained rife with brigands, and it was simply physically dangerous (heat, cold, limited fresh water etc.). Burnes managed to escape being murdered by Murad Beg (a local chieftain in the Kunduz region who hated Europeans), and later on not being murdered by Emir Nasrullah of Bukhara, when he eventually arrived in 1832. Burnes describes Bukhara at the time as having 12 gates and 20-foot-high walls surrounding the city for 8 miles and being so heavily policed that theft was not a real concern within its walls. His activities were limited within the city, but fortunately Burnes acute awareness and sensitivity to local custom would serve him well (unlike Colonel Stoddart, whom I will discuss later). Burnes was able to converse relatively widely with the varied ethnic groups which made Bukhara their home at that time (Uzbeks, Persians, Turkomans, Tartars, Cossacks, Chinese, Russians, Afghans, Armenians, Bokharan Jews), providing diverse and valuable intelligence. In total, Burnes spent a month in Bukhara, until eventually moving on towards Persia (an ordeal in itself) and thereafter safely home. The success of Burnes’ journey has been widely attributed to his linguistic skills, low profile, attentiveness to local gossip, bravery, resourcefulness, and skill as a courtier.[5] Rather a far cry from travel today, where one might only need a passport, permits, some cash on hand, and a mobile phone.
Burnes' tragic end during the First Afghan War outside his residence in Kabul:
Charles Stoddart
Born in 1806, educated at Norwich and then Sandhurst, Charles Stoddart was a Colonel in the Indian Army, and in many respects an archetypical Great Game player. In 1838 Stoddart was sent overland to Bukhara by the Raj on official business, namely, to negotiate the freedom of slaves held in Bukhara.[6] Unfortunately for Stoddart, the rather capricious Emir of Bukhara, Nasrullah Khan, thought him to be a British Agent and thus a spy, and imprisoned him in the infamous “Bug Pit” within the Zindon (dungeon) inside Bukhara, which sits a very short walk behind the large “Ark of Bukhara” fortress in Bukhara. Accusations of spying might not be all that doomed Stoddart; apparently, when entering Bukhara Stoddart neglected to dismount from his horse when approaching the Emir, and also saluted the Emir whilst still mounted, something which no foreigner, especially not a non-Muslim wearing a military uniform, ought to have done. The rest of Stoddart’s rather unfortunate story is below in the section on Arthur Connolly.
Charles Stoddart:
Arthur Connolly
Born in 1807, Arthur Connolly was similar to both Burnes and Stoddart, he was employed by the Indian Army and the East India Company, and he participated widely in various Great Game reconnaissance missions. Connolly, is interesting for many reason, two in particular in my view: (1) he is alleged to have coined the term “Great Game” and (2) he was in fact a cousin of Sir William Macnaghten, whom one will surely discover if they read the full account of Alexander Burnes’ adventures (both Burnes and Macnaghten were murdered in Kabul during the 1st Afghan war). Connolly had his own adventures (which he wrote about), travelling overland from Moscow via the Caucasus and Herat (Afghanistan) to India between 1829-1831; unfortunately, I have yet to read his account (which was published in 1834). In any case, in 1841 Connolly was sent to Bukhara to try to persuade various Khanates to resist Russian advances, and to rescue Stoddart. Unfortunately for both Connolly and Stoddart, the Emir imprisoned them both in the bug pit claiming them to be British spies, and they were eventually executed on the main square in front of the Ark of Bukhara on 24th June 1842.[7] Their deaths were unknown until another explorer, Reverend Joseph Wolff discovered their unfortunate demise, making them rather famous back home in the salons of England and the Raj.[8] Wolff himself, in full priestly regalia with his Cambridge University hat, was brought in front of the Emir, who allegedly laughed aloud and sent him home shortly thereafter.
Arthur Connolly:
I could happily ramble on about a few more of these adventurers, but that would probably get a bit boring for some of the readers. Do check out my book recommendations within my first blog post for tales of more great adventurers.
The feared and capricious Emir of Bukhara, Nasrullah Khan:
My visit to Bukhara
Fortunately, I managed to get a hotel with a good central location very close to one of the covered markets, so I was able to explore all the major sites on foot, which I enjoyed very much. I did venture out via cab on one occasion to explore one of the better restaurants. Rather unfortunately, I discovered the perfect hotel I would have liked to stay in only after booking mine, alas.
A large portion of the old city, including mosques, madrasahs, minarets and markets, and particularly the large Ark fortress, is well maintained to the current day which is excellent. Since 1993 the historic centre of Bukhara has been on then UNESCO World Heritage List.
Map of Bukhara showing the major historical sites:
Nearby my hotel there was a large covered market which gives way to a rather touristy section of the city, lined with shops etc. where many historic buildings have been renovated and/or repurposed.
Markets of Bukhara and some of the main tourist street in the evening:
Ulug’bek Madrasah, Abdulaziz Khan Madrasah
Once one leaves the area with shops, restaurants and market, they come to a crossroads. On the right-hand side is a small quare with the Ulug’bek Madrasah to the north and the Abdulaziz Khan Madrasah to the south. Inside the Madrasahs now there are usually various types of shops/vendors selling local goods for tourists. The Ulug’bek Madrasah was built in 1417 and was commissioned by Mirzo Ulug’bek, a ruler of Bukhara when it was part of the Timurid Empire; Ulug’bek was also an astronomer and mathematician. I understand that the Ulug’bek Madrasah was an important centre for learning (in multiple fields) during its heyday, attracting Islamic scholars like Rumi and Jamshid Kashi. At the entrance there is an inscription from Ulug’bek which reads “Aspiration to knowledge is the duty of every Muslim man and woman.” The Abdulaziz Khan Madrasah was built in 1651 – 1652, making it one of the last large structures built in historic Bukhara.
Ulug’bek Madrasah and Abdulaziz Khan Madrasahs
Mir-i-Arab Madrasah, Kalon Tower, Kalan Mosque
To the left one can walk a short distance to the main square which is flanked by the Mir-i-Arab Madrasah, the impressive 12th century Kalon Tower and the large Kalan Mosque. The Mir-i-Arab Madrasa was built in 1535-1536, and apparently remained in active use until the 20th century; even today it still provides some educational functions. It has a particularly elegant exterior which is brilliantly lit up in the evenings. Across from the Mir-i-Arab Madrasah is the Kalan Mosque and Kalon Tower.
Mir-i-Arab Madrasah (and others):
The Kalon Tower (or the Kalyan Minaret) was built over an earlier tower and ultimately completed in 1127. It was so grand in its heyday that when Genghis Khan arrived as a conqueror, he spared the tower when all else around it was razed.[9] It was chiefly used to call Muslims to prayer, but given its size it also had other purposes, namely as a watch tower in times of conflict, or in a more sinister manner, as a tool of execution; In Eastern Approaches (which I sadly have yet to read!), Fitzroy Maclean notes of the Kalon Tower: “For centuries before 1870, and again in the troubled years between 1917 and 1920, men were cast down to their death from the delicately ornamented gallery which crowns it.”
The Kalon Tower (Kalyan Minaret):
The Kalan Mosque (also known as “Po-i-Kalyan”) immediately next to the Kalon Tower is one of the largest historic structures in Bukhara, and along with the Ark, I found it to be the most impressive and elegant. It seems to me that it is attractive from almost every angle. It is one of the largest mosques in Central Asia. The original mosque which stood next to the Kalon Tower was destroyed by Genghis Khan in 1220, and the current structure was constructed between 1515 and 1535.
The Kalan Mosque:
The Ark of Bukhara
Beyond the square adjacent the Kalan Mosque lies a large archaeological excavation and adjacent to that the enormous Registan square of Bukhara which wraps around the impressive fortress known as the Ark of Bukhara. Apart from being nicely tiled the square itself is not much to write home about, there are several very annoying tourist facilities dotted about, as well as rental bikes and scooters etc., permitting children to scream about, which is quite tragic. The Ark of Bukhara on the other hand is very impressive. It is a massive fortress, originally constructed starting in the 5th century AD. The enormous walls are 16-20 meters high and enclose an area of approximately 9.8 acres. The main entrance to the Ark is elegantly designed with a viewing platform flanked by towers; I can imagine many a cruel Emir sitting here watching executions in the square below… In many ways, the Ark resembles a tell, with layers of construction build one on top of another over time. Unfortunately, during the Red Army’s conquest of Bukhara in the 1920s, much of the interior was destroyed by aerial bombardment, and today only the reconstructed entranceway, the Emir’s throne room, and several other buildings adjacent to the main entranceway (which also contains some dungeons, which I mistakenly assumed to contain the bug pit) remains. There remains a considerable amount of archaeological work still to be conducted in the Ark, which may shed more light on the deeper history of the city of Bukhara. I really enjoyed my visit (apart from the heat that day!) and made sure to sit on the Emir’s throne in my safari suit and trilby to avenge the slain Englishmen.
The impressive Ark of Bukhara. In some photos from the top/back of the Ark you can see the area which has been levelled by bombs in 1920:
The new Emir of Bukhara as of October 2024:
The Zindon (Dungeon)
Around 100 meters to the northwest of the Ark is the Zindon, or dungeon. It was here that the unfortunate Charles Stoddart and Arthur Connolly were imprisoned for several years before being executed. The condition of their imprisonment would have been grim indeed. They were locked inside what was called the “Bug Pit”, which is very much as it sounds. The Bug Pit is 6.5 meters deep and would have been accessible only by a rope. It was (as now) covered with a grate, and presumably, when it was filled with prisoners, it was also filled with bugs and very likely human excrement. It was rather surreal to come so close to such a vivid and grim piece of Great Game history.
Outside and inside the Zindon (dungeon) of Bukhara, and its infamous "Bug Pit":
Bukhara’s Culinary Scene
After leaving the Zinden I made my way back through the city and stopped in a square which had some gardens and was populated with many tourists. To my surprise they had a decent bar menu and served gin & tonic and Aperol spritz, two drinks I had missed in prior countries due to lack of ingredients.
After exploring the city during the day, I decided to try the local culinary scene and managed to visit two excellent restaurants, which was quite a treat since the effects of the dysentery and strong antibiotics had now dissipated. I visited Zaytoon and Saffron, both were excellent, however the former requires a cab out of the city centre to get to it. Each had great food and a decent wine list. Saffron also had a decent view over the city, and they sell cigars for those who enjoy such things with a view.
Zaytoon (first three photos), and view from Saffton (last photo):
Nearby to Saffron one can also see some original parts of the old city walls, namely, a gatehouse which has been maintained. I wonder which ones past explorers would have passed through…
One of the old city gates of Bukhara:
One afternoon prior to dinner I managed to find a nice café down a back alley which was a great find. It was called “Silk Road Teahouse” and it was traditionally appointed, serving various types of tea/coffee and assorted local sweets. I had the cardamon coffee and Eastern Sweets, the latter were quite interesting, albeit a bit sweet for my tastes. Unfortunately, I had read all my books at this stage so didn’t linger too long.
Silk Road Teahouse - note that they also sold spices and art/carpets:
On my last night in the city, the restaurant I wanted to visit (Old Bukhara) was fully booked, so I explored an area to the south where there are some interesting water features and a variety of restaurants and shops. These are adjacent to another of the cities’ larger madrasahs, the Nadir Divan Begi Madrasah. This area was much more crammed with tourists than elsewhere in the evening, but I decided to try one of the restaurants adjacent the water feature. As expected, it served typical tourist slop and wine that wasn’t fit for donkeys, so I left and purchased some pastry from a grocer and wandered leisurely back to my hotel.
Tourist area near water feature, nearby, the Magoki Attori Mosque:
Overall, my experience in Bukhara was excellent, it is a very walkable city and aesthetically pleasing, it has plentiful points of ancient and modern historical significance, the food is generally good (for Central Asia), and the locals are friendly and not pushy.
I would recommend a visit to Bukhara for all those visiting Uzbekistan.
Cheers,
Simon
[1] Salama & El-Ashmouni 2021, p. 84.
[4] John Ure, “Shooting Leave”, Constable, 2009, pages 21-43.
[5] John Ure, “Shooting Leave”, Constable, 2009, pages 21-43.
[6] Peter Hopkirk. The Great Game, Kodansha International, 1992, ISBN 4-7700-1703-0.
[7] Peter Hopkirk. The Great Game, Kodansha International, 1992, ISBN 4-7700-1703-0.
[8] Rev. Joseph Wolff (1795 – 1862). Narrative of a mission to Bokhara, in the years 1843–1845, to ascertain the fate of Colonel Stoddart and Captain Conolly. London: J. W. Parker, 1845.
[9] Mayhew, Bradley; Clammer, Paul; Kohn, Michael D. Lonely Planet Central Asia. Lonely Planet Publications. ISBN 1-86450-296-7.
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